In this series of posts, we’ve been trying to reconstruct what early church gatherings looked like. We have already seen the development from the first to the end of the second century. The third century marked a watershed moment in the history of the Christian gathering, since for the first time Christians had their own spaces of worship, which made it possible to further develop the ritual space and actions surrounding the Eucharist. The main texts that I will use here are Apostolic Tradition 4; 22; 35–37; Didascalia 2.57-58; 5.10-20; 6.21-22; and Cyprian, Letter 63. [31]
Where?
In the third century, the eucharistic gathering moved from private homes and rented spaces into designated places of Christian worship. The church buildings at Megiddo and Dura-Europos were constructed ca. 230, and Eusebius refers to the construction of many other buildings during the lack of persecution from 260 to 303: “vast assemblies... in the houses of prayer, because of which, not being satisfied any longer with the ancient buildings, they built, from the foundations up, spacious churches” (Church History 8.1.5). These buildings were destroyed at the onset of persecution (8.2.1). Origen of Alexandria (d. 253) is the first to refer to a building, rather than the eucharistic gathering itself, as a “church” (Orat 31.7). [32]
The ritual use of these spaces is documented by the Didascalia, a church order from mid-3rd century Syria. This document says that the bishop’s throne must be set on the eastern side of the house, with presbyters surrounding him, and the laity in another part of the house, in order to facilitate standing prayer toward the east (2.57). The practice of praying toward the east is well-documented by the third century (e.g., Origen, On Prayer 20). [33] In the church building at Megiddo, there was a raised altar in the center of the floor which was donated by a private individual, Akeptous.
When Christians obtained their own spaces of worship in the third century, they began to decorate them with religious art (see the Roman catacombs, Dura-Europos baptistry, Megiddo church mosaic). This art wasn’t merely didactic or decorative, but invited ritual participation. The baptistry at Dura-Europos invites the participant to identify with David at their anointing, with Christ in the tomb at their baptism, and with members of the Good Shepherd’s flock as they come out of the water. [34] In the catacombs, orant-figures invite onlookers to imitate them in prayer – perhaps for the intercession of the dead Christian depicted in this way – in more than one case, through another image of Christ the Good Shepherd. [35]
When?
The main weekly assembly of Christians was still on Sunday in the third century (e.g., Apostolic Tradition 22.1; Didascalia 5.10). For the first time, however, there is an explicit distinction made between the Eucharist in the morning and the agapē-feast in the evening. St Cyprian of Carthage insists that in the evening, “we cannot call the people together to our banquet to celebrate the truth of the sacrament,” because “the whole brotherhood” (omnis fraternitas) is unable to attend at that time (Letter 63.16). The Apostolic Tradition states that at the evening gathering, the bishop “should not say, ‘Lift up your hearts,’ because that is said for the oblation” (25.6), and the meal is “blessed” but “is not the Eucharist” (26.1)
During the third century, there was also a push toward daily gathering instead of only weekly, which is foreshadowed by Tertullian’s injunction to take the Eucharist on the weekly fast days (On Prayer 19). [36] The Apostolic Tradition says that, before going to work, believers should assemble to listen to the Word and partake of the Eucharist if possible (35–36; 39; 41.1-3). Origen (On Prayer 27) and Cyprian (On the Lord’s Prayer 18) both interpret “daily bread” in the Lord’s prayer to refer to the Eucharist. Some of Origen’s sermons refer to the Scripture reading of the previous day (Hom Gen 10.3; Hom Josh 4.1).
The third century also saw further development in the liturgical calendar. The Didascalia describes a six-day fast during Holy Week, from Monday through Saturday, based on the historical events of that week (5.13-14). During this fast, believers should eat only bread and water through Thursday, and then nothing at all on Friday and Saturday, while praying for the repentance of non-believing Jews (5.14-19). Pascha should be celebrated on Sunday after the fast (5.20). If anyone misses the fast, they should fast after Pentecost instead (Apostolic Tradition 33.3). The lack of fasting and kneeling during prayer from Pascha to Pentecost continued through the third century. [37]
Who?
During the third century, the Christian gathering became more restrictive in terms of who was allowed, due to the prevalence of sects outside the Church. In the first century, it had been enough to know whether someone had been baptized to allow them to partake of the communal meal (Didache 9.5). In the third century, when someone came from another congregation, the deacon not only had to ask if she was baptized but “if she is a daughter of the Church, or perhaps belongs to one of the heresies [i.e., sects]” (Didascalia 2.58). This necessarily led to the restriction of communion, since as St Justin Martyr said a century earlier, the Eucharist is meant for those who “believe the things we teach are true” (1 Apol 66.1).
The problem of schism also increased during this period, especially in the West. During persecution, a rigorist sect that wanted to prevent lapsed Christians from re-entering the Church appointed the presbyter Novatian as a rival bishop of Rome. The Novatianists were strongly opposed by St Cyprian, who insisted (much like St Ignatius in the preceding century) that the Church only exists where the genuine bishop, as successor to the apostles, exists (On the Unity of the Catholic Church). This is the basis for his statement, “the bishop is in the Church and the Church is in the bishop, and if anyone is not with the bishop, he is not in the Church” (Letter 69.8). This ecclesiology was agreed upon by other bishops in Africa and the East, although St Stephen, bishop of Rome, notably disagreed that schismatics must be rebaptized (Letter 70; 75; Eusebius, Church History 7.2-5).
The roles of the bishop, presbyters, and deacons during this period are outlined in the Apostolic Tradition. The bishop has the priesthood, and therefore offers the sacrifice of the Eucharist and has the power to forgive sins (3.4-5); the presbyter is called to “help and guide” the people, that is, they have an advisory and teaching role (7.2; cf. Didascalia 2.26-27, 34); the deacon is not ordained to the priesthood, nor to the council, but to serve the bishop and the people, and to offer up what has already been offered by the priest, i.e., the Eucharist (8.1-11). During the eucharistic gathering itself, the deacons break the bread, while the bishop hands the sacrifice to the people – by himself if possible, or with the presbyters, and if necessary even the deacons (22.1-3).
What?
After the second century, the basic structure of the liturgy (Word-Eucharist) didn’t change (Apostolic Tradition 35–36; Didascalia 2.58; 6.21), although some elements have been shuffled around. For example, the Apostolic Tradition suggests that the holy kiss, now called the “kiss of peace,” was moved from the beginning of the gathering to just before the eucharistic prayers (4.1ff; 18; 21.23ff), where it still is in the Christian traditions that practice it. This is also the first text of which I’m aware that tells us what catechumens did during the liturgy: they would stay to hear the Word and the sermon, then after certain prayers and the kiss of peace, the teacher would lay hands on them and pray and they would be dismissed from the gathering (17–19).
The Apostolic Tradition provides eucharistic prayers, and instructs that the bishop “give thanks according to all that was said above,” but not necessarily “with the very same words given above,” rather “according to his ability” (4.2-13; 9.3-5). [38] The structure of the prayers includes an opening dialogue, formula of thanksgiving to God, remembrance of Christ’s work leading into the “words of institution,” formula of offering, calling down of the Holy Spirit onto the offering, and doxology, all of which are familiar from later liturgies. [39] The same opening dialogue is referenced by St Cyprian: the priest says, “Lift up your hearts,” and the people respond, “We lift them up to the Lord,” to remind them that they should think of nothing other than the Lord during prayer (On the Lord’s Prayer 31).
As for other activities during the gathering, such as reading Scripture and singing hymns, some details are found in third-century writings. Origen at least was accustomed to the reader reading consecutive passages from the same book on successive days, then exegeting the passage for his sermon (Hom Num 15.1; Hom Lev 7.1). [40] He complained that some believers would leave after hearing the Scripture and not listen to his sermon (Hom Exod 12.2). Some third-century hymns are known (e.g., P. Oxy. XV 1786; P. Rylands 470), and psalms would also be recited during the gathering, to which the people would respond, “Alleluia” (Apostolic Tradition 25.12-15).
Why?
A clear account of the third-century understanding of the Eucharist is given by Cyprian, in a letter that he wrote against the practice of using only water in the eucharistic cup instead of wine mixed with water (Letter 63). [41] This is because “the blood of Christ is surely not water, but wine” (63.2). Water instead represents baptism (63.8-9), so when the water and wine are mixed, the assembly of baptized believers is made one with Christ (63.13). The cup is not water alone or wine alone, but the two mixed, just as “the body of the Lord cannot be flour alone or water alone, unless both are united and joined and compacted in the mass of one bread, in which sacrament our people are shown to be made one... body” (63.13). The Eucharist is not legitimately celebrated unless it imitates Christ’s passion (63.9), and the priest imitates Christ’s offering of himself to the Father (63.14). Thus, the Lord’s passion is mentioned in the eucharistic prayers, “because the Lord’s passion is the sacrifice that we offer” (63.17).
Here we see the same understanding as in Paul: the bread and cup are Christ’s body and blood, which are offered as a sacrifice, and establish the unity of the Church as the one body of Christ. In this period, for the first time, we see the “words of institution” and the anamnesis (remembrance of Christ’s passion) explicitly included in the eucharistic prayers (Apostolic Tradition 4.8-11; Cyprian, Letter 63). These prayers are what sanctify the bread through the Holy Spirit (Didascalia 6.21-22). According to Origen, “this bread becomes by prayer a sacred body, which sanctifies those who sincerely partake of it” (Cels 8.33). The Apostolic Traditions states that the Eucharist which “is the body of Christ” must not be eaten by an unbeliever or an animal, and the cup which “is the antitype of the blood” must not be spilled (37–38).
Reconstruction
Having looked at some liturgical texts from the third century, we can try to reconstruct what it would have been like to attend a church gathering during this period. This will probably look very familiar to most Christians from liturgical traditions, as the third-century eucharistic prayers begin to crystallize into the same form that they take today.
- On a Sunday morning, you go to the local church building to gather with the faithful. The deacon greets you at the entrance and ushers you to your place. Everyone has a place, with the bishops and presbyters seated in front of the altar.
- As you stand in the gathering, your eyes are drawn to the images on the wall, reminding you to imitate the good conduct of figures from the Scriptures and guiding you to prayer.
- Once everyone is gathered together, the reader reads some passages from the Scriptures, picking up where he left off earlier in the week.
- After the Scriptures are read, one of the presbyters instructs you all about the meaning of these passages. The bishop also gives a sermon to the congregation which encourages everyone to take seriously the words of Scripture in your daily life.
- When the sermons are finished, the bishop leads the people in more intercessory prayers. After these prayers, you give the kiss of peace to one another. The catechumens come forward and a presbyter lays hands on them and prays for them, then dismisses them from the gathering.
- Then the deacons bring the bread and the cup out, and the bishop with the presbyters lays his hands on them. He says, “The Lord be with you,” and you all respond, “And with your spirit.” “Lift up your hearts.” “We lift them up to the Lord.” “Let us give thanks to the Lord.” “It is right and just.”
- The bishop prays over the bread and cup,
- “We render thanks to you, God, through your beloved servant Jesus Christ, whom in the last times you sent to us as Savior and Redeemer and Angel of your will, who is your inseparable Word, through whom you made all things and it was well pleasing to you, whom you sent from heaven into the virgin’s womb, and who conceived in the womb was incarnate and manifested as your Son, born from the Holy Spirit and the virgin; who fulfilling your will and gaining for you a holy people stretched out his hands when he was suffering, that he might release from suffering those who believed in you.
- “Who when he was being handed over to voluntary suffering, that he might destroy death and break the bonds of the devil, and tread down hell and illuminate the righteous, and fix a limit and manifest the resurrection, taking bread and giving thanks to you, he said: ‘Take, eat, this is my body that will be broken for you.’ Likewise also the cup, saying, ‘This is my blood that is shed for you. When you do this, you do my remembrance.’
- “Remembering therefore his death and resurrection, we offer to you the bread and cup, giving thanks to you because you have held us worthy to stand before you and minister to you.
- “And we ask that you would send your Holy Spirit in the offering of your holy church, that gathering them into one you will give to all who partake of the holy things to partake in the fullness of the Holy Spirit, for the strengthening of faith in truth, that we may praise and glorify you through your servant Jesus Christ, through whom be glory and honor to you, Father and Son with the Holy Spirit, in your holy church, both now and to the ages of ages.” [42]
- You respond, “Amen,” and come forward to take the offering from the hand of the bishop. You eat it reverently, and trust that you are sanctified by the body and blood of Christ, being united to the one body of the Church through this offering.
- After you return to your place, the bishop leads the Church in various psalms, as well as other hymns of praise that are new compositions, and after each one you joyously say “Alleluia!”
- The bishop concludes with another prayer and dismisses everyone from the congregation. You return home and start the workday, and recalling the words of Scripture and the sermon that you heard, do your best to imitate and manifest Christ in a world that seeks to persecute him.
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[31] The Apostolic Tradition is traditionally attributed to St Hippolytus of Rome, ca. AD 215, but the attribution is doubtful and the date is contested: Bradshaw, Origins of Christian Worship, 80-83. However, it is still useful for reconstructing the third-century liturgy: Metzger, History of the Liturgy, 33-35; Bradshaw and Johnson, The Eucharistic Liturgies, 40-41.
[32] Aliykin, Earliest History, 55-56; see also Metzger, History of the Liturgy, 37-39.
[33] Lang, Turning Towards the Lord, 42-48.
[34] Jensen and Ellison, Routledge Handbook of Early Christian Art, 281-282; Robin Jensen, “Ritual and Early Christian Art,” in The Oxford Handbook of Early Christian Ritual (Oxford, 2018), 598-601.
[35] Jensen and Ellison, Routledge Handbook of Early Christian Art, 26-28; Robin Jensen, “Ritual and Early Christian Art,” 589-592.
[36] Metzger, History of the Liturgy, 44-45; Aliykin, Earliest History, 95-99.
[37] Bradshaw, Origins of Christian Worship, 182-183.
[38] This indicates that there were certain conventions by which the eucharistic prayers were expected to abide, but that they were not yet fully standardized. Cf. Origen’s statement in his dialogue with Heraclides that the prayers for “the offering... must abide by agreements”: Aliykin, Earliest History, 243-244.
[39] Metzger, History of the Liturgy, 41-43; Aliykin, Earliest History, 242-243; Bradshaw and Johnson, The Eucharistic Liturgies, 40-41.
[40] Aliykin, Earliest History, 175-177.
[41] This practice was also written against by St Irenaeus in the late second century (Against Heresies 5.1.3), and it persisted for several centuries among ascetic Christian groups: Andrew McGowan, Ascetic Eucharists: Food and Drink in Early Christian Ritual Meals (Clarendon Press, 1999), 143ff.
[42] This is the anaphora found in Apostolic Tradition 4.3-13, although it was not expected to be followed exactly in actual gatherings (9.3-5).
