Punishment and Salvation: The Eternal State (part 3 of 3)

Part 2: The Messianic Age

     In the last two sections of this paper, we have seen that many judgment passages in the New Testament actually relate to the AD 70 fall of Jerusalem, which coincided with the end of the Old Covenant, while other passages describe the ongoing judgment that takes place in this life (e.g., John 3:17-21). The rewards of believers, namely “eonian life” and “the kingdom of God,” are spiritual blessings that we enjoy in our present life (see esp. John 17:3; Rom. 14:17), while the ‘death’ that unbelievers undergo is the state of separation from God which we formerly existed in (Eph. 2:1-5, 12). All rewards and punishments for the righteous and the wicked take place in this life, as the author of Proverbs observed (Prov. 11:31).

    But what consequences does this have for the Second Coming and the resurrection of the dead? This is surely a future event, as Jesus has not bodily returned and the dead have not been bodily raised. So will there be a final judgment at this time, despite the fact that the Bible appears to teach that judgment takes place in this life? What will be the ultimate fate of believers and unbelievers?

    The Second Coming and Resurrection

    During his earthly ministry, Jesus did not speak of his return to earth. Although he spoke of a “coming” of the Son of Man (Matt. 24:27, 30; 26:64), this was the “coming” of the Messiah to God to receive power and glory and a kingdom, as prophesied in Daniel 7:13-14. The disciples of Jesus were not aware of the Second Coming; in fact, despite Jesus’ warnings to them, they did not even believe that he would die, rise again, and ascend to heaven (Matt. 16:21-22; Luke 24:18-27; John 16:16-18). Therefore, when he finally did ascend to heaven, the disciples were told by heavenly messengers:

“Men of Galilee, why do you stand looking up toward heaven? This Jesus, who has been taken up from you into heaven, will come in the same way as you saw him go into heaven.” (Acts 1:11)

This is the first time that Jesus’ bodily return to earth is described in the New Testament. After this, the disciples began to preach the Second Coming, which Peter declared would take place at “the times of the restitution of all things” (Acts 3:21).

    Although Jesus did not preach about the Second Coming during his earthly ministry, he did teach about the resurrection of the dead. Contrary to the Sadducees’ claim that there would be no bodily resurrection, Jesus showed that the Torah implicitly claimed that the patriarchs would live again one day (Mark 12:18-27). According to his teaching, those who are resurrected will be unable to die again (Luke 20:34-36). In the gospel of John, we’re told that this resurrection will occur “on the last day” (6:39, 40, 44, 54; 11:24), which elsewhere is said to coincide with Jesus’ return from heaven (1 Cor. 15:51-55; 1 Thess. 4:13-18). The resurrection of the dead will involve a transformation of our mortal, soulish bodies into immortal, spiritual bodies (1 Cor. 15:35-49; Phil 3:20-21).

    The Scope of the Resurrection

    As we have seen, the New Testament teaches that there will be a physical resurrection of the dead at the same time as Christ’s bodily return from heaven. But who will be resurrected at this time? The book of Acts tells us that “there will be a resurrection of both the righteous and the unrighteous” (24:15); but will both groups of people be resurrected at the same time, or will only a subset be resurrected at the Second Coming?

    According to John 6:39, those who will be raised “on the last day” are all those whom God has given to Jesus. This includes those who believe in Jesus in this life (John 6:40), but it also includes every other member of humanity, because God has given to Jesus “all things” and “all flesh” (John 3:35; 13:3; 17:2; cf. Matt. 11:27; Rom. 14:9). Prior to Jesus’ death, it was only his disciples who had been given to him (John 17:6-9), but it is clear that after his resurrection, he became the Lord of “all flesh” and “the dead and the living” (John 17:2; Rom. 14:9). Indeed, his inheritance includes the wicked and unbelievers, as prophesied by the psalmist (Ps. 2:7-9; cf. Acts 13:33). Because the people who have been given to Jesus will be raised “on the last day,” and all people have been given to Jesus, it follows that all people will be raised at the Second Coming.

    This is supported by Paul’s writings, especially 1 Corinthians 15:20-23, in which he states:

But in fact Christ has been raised from the dead, the firstfruits of those who have died. For since death came through a human, the resurrection of the dead has also come through a human; for as all die in Adam, so all will be made alive in Christ. But each in its own order: Christ the firstfruits, then at his coming those who belong to Christ. Then comes the end...

    Although some argue that this passage describes three different stages of resurrection, the evidence does not support this view. Paul refers to Jesus as the firstfruits, [1] which draws upon the typology of harvest in the Old Testament; this only had two stages, the “sheaf of the firstfruits” followed by the rest of the harvest (Lev. 23:9-22). Jesus is the firstfruits of “those who have died” and all who “die in Adam,” so the second stage of the ‘harvest’ of the resurrection includes everyone who has died. [2] Moreover, those who are resurrected “at his coming” are “those who belong to Christ,” which in Paul’s view includes “both the dead and the living” (Rom. 14:9). 

    The only other place in Paul’s epistles where he describes the resurrection at the Second Coming is 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18. This passage states:

But we do not want you to be uninformed, brothers and sisters, about those who have died, so that you may not grieve as others do who have no hope. For since we believe that Jesus died and rose again, even so, through Jesus, God will bring with him those who have died. For this we declare to you by the word of the Lord, that we who are alive, who are left until the coming of the Lord, will by no means precede those who have died.

For the Lord himself, with a cry of command, with the archangel’s call and with the sound of God’s trumpet, will descend from heaven, and the dead in Christ will rise first. Then we who are alive, who are left, will be caught up in the clouds together with them to meet the Lord in the air, and so we will be with the Lord forever. Therefore encourage one another with these words.

    The scope of this resurrection is described repeatedly as “those who have died” (or “those who are asleep”), which suggests that all who have died will be raised at that time. Yet in v. 16, most translations say that “the dead in Christ will rise first,” which implies that only dead Christians will be resurrected. Nonetheless, this can also be translated as “the dead will rise in Christ first,” which better fits the context and is grammatically more plausible. [3] Moreover, since this prophecy was meant to comfort the Thessalonians about “those who have died,” were they only concerned about other Christians and not their unbelieving relatives as well? This is quite unlikely, especially since Paul has just exhorted them to have love not only “for one another,” but indeed “for all” (1 Thess. 3:12; cf. 5:15).

    In summary, the resurrection at the Second Coming will encompass all members of humanity, not just believers. This is shown by the gospel of John, which states that all who have been given to Jesus will be “raised on the last day” (6:39), and that all people have been given to Jesus (17:2). It is also supported by Paul’s epistles, as he says that “those who belong to Christ” (which includes all people) will be resurrected “at his coming” (1 Cor. 15:20-23; cf. Rom. 14:9), and that “those who have died” will “rise in Christ” when he returns from heaven (1 Thess. 4:13-18).

    The Salvation of All

    As I have argued at length in many other places, the Bible clearly teaches that all people, not just those who believe in this life, will be saved through Christ’s sacrifice. This is most obviously seen in the writings of Paul, who establishes in his epistles to the Romans and Corinthians that as many people as were condemned by Adam’s sin will also be justified by Jesus’ selfless sacrifice:

But the free gift is not like the trespass. For if the many died through the one man’s trespass, much more surely have the grace of God and the gift in the grace of the one man, Jesus Christ, abounded for the many. And the gift is not like the effect of the one man’s sin. For the judgment following one trespass brought condemnation, but the gift following many trespasses brings justification. If, because of the one man’s trespass, death reigned through that one, much more surely will those who receive the abundance of grace and the gift of righteousness reign in life through the one man, Jesus Christ. Therefore just as one man’s trespass led to condemnation for all, so one man’s act of righteousness leads to justification and life for all. For just as through the one man’s disobedience the many were made sinners, so through the one man’s obedience the many will be made righteous. (Rom. 5:15-19)

But in fact Christ has been raised from the dead, the first fruits of those who have died. For since death came through a human, the resurrection of the dead has also come through a human, for as all die in Adam, so all will be made alive in Christ. (1 Cor. 15:20-22)

Some avoid this conclusion by arguing that “the many” and “all people” in these passages could refer to a subset of humanity. If Paul had said that “all people” were condemned in Adam while “the many” were justified in Christ, or even vice versa, this might be a plausible interpretation. Instead, he’s careful to establish a comparison between the two, referring to both groups as “the many” or “all people” in the same sentence, showing that it’s the same group (all humanity) in view in both cases.

    These aren’t the only passages establishing universal salvation by far. In the famous Carmen Christi, we’re told that one day “every knee will bow... and every tongue will confess, ‘Jesus Christ is Lord’” (Phil. 2:10-11), which is a confession that cannot be made except by the Holy Spirit (1 Cor. 12:3). Paul says that “all things” that were created, “whether in heaven or on earth,” shall be reconciled to God by the blood of Jesus (Eph. 1:9-10; Col. 1:16-20). God “wills that all people be saved,” and therefore he sent Jesus as the “correspondent ransom on behalf of all” (1 Tim. 2:4-6). He “imprisoned all in disobedience so that he may be merciful to all” (Rom. 11:32). Paul tells us to “insist upon and teach” that God is “the savior of all people, especially of believers” (1 Tim. 4:10-11). [4]

    The salvation of all is also taught implicitly throughout the rest of the Scriptures. Many passages tell us that God has the power to control people’s thoughts and desires, including their faith and unbelief; no one comes to Jesus unless it’s willed by the Father. [5] Even if this biblical determinist view is rejected, it follows from God’s omniscience and omnipotence that he knows the circumstances under which each person would come to faith in him, and is able to bring this about. We’re also told that love for all people, even his enemies, is integral to God’s very being and perfection (Matt. 5:43-48; 1 John 4:8). Those whom God loves, he may justly chastise and punish, but he always shows compassion afterward, to the ultimate good of the object of love (Lam. 3:31-33; Heb. 12:6-11; cf. Rom. 13:8-10). Therefore, God wills for all people, even his enemies, to be saved (1 Tim. 2:4).

    It follows logically from God’s sovereignty over and love for all people — which are major themes found all across the Bible — that he will cause all people to be saved. [6,7] But when will all people come to faith in God and Christ and be saved? The answer is given by Paul in his discourse on the resurrection:

But each [will be resurrected] in its own order: Christ the firstfruits, then at his coming those who belong to Christ. Then comes the end, when he hands over the kingdom to God the Father, after he has destroyed every ruler and every authority and power. For he must reign until he has put all his enemies under his feet. The last enemy to be destroyed is death. For “God has put all things in subjection under his feet.” But when it says, “All things are put in subjection,” it is plain that this does not include the One who put all things in subjection under him. When all things are subjected to him, then the Son himself will also be subjected to the One who put all things in subjection under him, so that God may be all in all...

Look, I will tell you a mystery! We will not all die, but we will all be changed, in a moment, in the twinkling of an eye, at the last trumpet. For the trumpet will sound, and the dead will be raised imperishable, and we will be changed. For this perishable body must put on imperishability, and this mortal body must put on immortality. When this perishable body puts on imperishability and this mortal body puts on immortality, then the saying that is written will be fulfilled: “Death has been swallowed up in victory.” “Where, O death, is your victory? Where, O death, is your sting?” The sting of death is sin, and the power of sin is the law. But thanks be to God, who gives us the victory through our Lord Jesus Christ. (1 Cor. 15:23-28, 51-57)

Paul says that death will be destroyed at “the end” (Gk: to telos), after every ruler and authority has been abolished, when Jesus finally subjects all things under his feet and gives up the kingdom to the Father. [8] Elsewhere, in his epistle to the Philippians, Paul says, “He will transform the body of our humiliation that it may be conformed to the body of his glory, by the power that also enables him to make all things subject to himself” (Phil. 3:21). Therefore, in making all things (including his enemies) subject to himself, Christ will transform their bodies to be immortal and incorruptible like his.

    This will all take place when we are resurrected “at the last trumpet,” at which time both death and its “sting,” which is sin, will be swallowed up in God’s victory through Christ (1 Cor. 15:54-57). Then God will be “all in all” (15:28). If all people will be immortal and incorruptible, with God dwelling in them, and no more ability to sin, what else can this be but the salvation of all people? [9] Indeed, if no one will sin any more after the resurrection, further punishment would be utterly pointless and cruel. God doesn’t punish out of a mere vengeance, but out of a desire for restoration and reconciliation (Lam. 3:31-33; Heb. 12:6-11).

    It might be objected to this universalist view that this makes Jesus’ sacrifice pointless. But that’s turning the entire situation on its head. All people will be saved and made immortal, not in spite of Christ, but because of him. The very reason that he died was to “abolish death and bring light and immortality to life” (2 Tim. 1:11). In every passage where he discusses the salvation of all, Paul is clear that it is because of Christ’s sacrifice that this wonderful outcome will take place. Jesus is the only way to the Father, so it would be impossible for all people to be saved except through him (John 14:6). This objection, therefore, makes as little sense as asking what the point of a firefighter’s sacrifice was if he died saving everyone from a burning building. Would Jesus’ sacrifice somehow be more meaningful if he saved only one-tenth of all people?

    Judgment on the Last Day

    Paul’s teachings about the resurrection of the dead and the salvation of all are clear, and his discourse in 1 Corinthians 15 makes these events simultaneous. Yet there is one passage which speaks of a judgment occurring at the same time as the resurrection:

I do not judge anyone who hears my words and does not keep them, for I came not to judge the world but to save the world. The one who rejects me and does not receive my words has a judge; on the last day the word that I have spoken will serve as judge. (John 12:47-48)

Elsewhere in the gospel of John, “the last day” is when the resurrection of the dead takes place (6:39, 40, 44, 54; 11:24). If there will be a judgment on “the last day,” this threatens our conclusion, based on Paul’s epistles, that all people will be saved at that time. How should we interpret this passage?

    First of all, note that even those who hear and do not keep Christ’s words are considered to be part of the “world” that he came to save. These people, along with the rest of those whom God has given Jesus, will be raised up on the last day, and ultimately none of them will be lost (John 6:39; cf. 3:35; 13:3; 17:2; Matt. 11:27; Rom. 14:9). We’re told that those who didn’t keep the words of Jesus in their lifetime will be judged on “the last day,” but we’re not told if this judgment will result in any punishment, whether eternal or limited. Notably, it isn’t Jesus who will judge them at that time, even though he’s the one to whom all judgment has been committed by the Father (John 5:22, 27). Instead, he says, “the word that I have spoken will serve as judge.”

    What is “the word” that Jesus spoke? Immediately before this, Jesus told the crowds that he was the one who had been sent by God, the light and savior of the world (John 12:44-47). It is this word that shall “judge” unbelievers on “the last day.” To judge (Gk: krinō) doesn’t always imply punishment, but can also simply mean to determine a course of action, or to deem someone right or wrong. [10] When, on the last day, those who rejected Jesus’ word are resurrected and “come to a knowledge of the truth” (1 Tim. 2:4), that same word will deem them to have been wrong. At that time, “all Israel will be saved,” including those who were disobedient to Jesus’ message in this life (Rom. 11:26, 32). Therefore, this judgment isn’t incompatible with the salvation of all on “the last day”; to the contrary, it will occur only when unbelievers have been saved and realized that they were wrong!

    Conclusion

    Most Christians believe that, after death, those who didn’t believe in Jesus as Messiah in this life will be hopelessly tortured forever in ‘hell,’ or at the very least annihilated forever. However, the biblical hope is much greater than this dystopian picture in which God abandons most of his creation to destruction. Most of the passages which are interpreted as referring to ‘hell’ (Dan. 12:2; Matt. 5:22, 29-30; 10:28; 13:37-43, 47-50; 18:8-9; 23:33; 25:31-46; Mark 9:43-48; Luke 12:5; John 5:28-29; 2 Thess. 1:5-10; Rev. 14:11; 20:11-15) actually refer to the fall of Jerusalem in AD 70, an event of great redemptive-historical significance to the early Christians, as it marked the end of the Old Covenant and the full arrival of the New Covenant, and vindicated the followers of Jesus over other Jewish sects (Matt. 22:1-14; 23:34-38; Heb. 8:13; 9:8-10; 10:8-9; Rev. 18:20-19:9).

    Other judgment passages, such as John 3:17-21 and Romans 2:5-10, refer to the present Messianic age, when Jesus reigns over and judges the gentiles (Ps. 2:6-9; Isa. 11:10-12; 42:1-4; Zech. 14:9; Matt. 28:18; Acts 13:33; 17:30-31; 2 Cor. 6:2). Those who follow Jesus have “eonian life,” which is defined as the state of knowing God and Christ (John 17:3); it is more than a mere intellectual knowledge, and involves God and his Son actually coming to dwell in communion with us (John 14:23; 1 John 1:3; 2:24; 3:23-24; 4:12-13; cf. 1 Cor. 3:16; Eph. 3:17). We belong to the “kingdom of God” with its spiritual blessings (Rom. 14:17; Col. 1:13). In contrast, those who don’t follow Jesus continue in darkness and death, because they refuse to come to Jesus who is the Light and Life; they are “having no hope and without God in the world” (John 3:36; Rom. 6:16, 21-23; 8:6, 13; 2 Cor. 7:10; Eph. 2:12; etc.).

    However, this state will not last forever. At the “times of the restoration of all things,” Jesus will return from heaven (Acts 1:11; 3:21; cf. Rom. 8:20-23). Then all people, including God’s enemies, will be subjected to him by being resurrected into immortal, sinless bodies, and death and sin will be abolished (John 6:39-44; 1 Cor. 15:20-28, 51-57; 1 Thess. 4:13-18; Phil. 3:21). Thus the salvation of all which was secured by Christ’s sacrifice will be effected (Rom. 5:12-19; 11:32; 1 Cor. 15:22; Eph. 1:9-10; Phil. 2:10-11; Col. 1:16-20; 1 Tim. 2:4-6; 4:10). About the eternal state, the Bible says very little, although it may be imperfectly foreshadowed in Revelation 21-22. But we can be sure that God has amazing things planned, not just for a small subset of people, for all of us!

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[1] Contrary to some idiosyncratic readings of this passage, “Christ the firstfruits” cannot refer to the body of Christ without doing violence to the text. The preceding section deals with the importance of Jesus’ bodily resurrection, concluding, “But in fact Christ has been raised from the dead, the firstfruits of those who have died” (1 Cor. 15:20), after which Paul segues into his discussion of the resurrection. Moreover, I’m aware of no place in Paul’s epistles where he uses “Christ” as a metonym for “the body of Christ.”

[2] It may be objected that after describing the resurrection of “those who are Christ’s,” Paul states, “Then comes the end,” which implies that the consummation comes some time after the resurrection. However, the word translated as “then” in v. 23 (Gk: epeita) differs from the word translated as “then” in v. 24 (Gk: eita). The former word indicates a necessary order in time, whereas the latter can be used to describe simultaneous events, as in fact proved by the immediate context (see the Greek of 1 Cor. 15:5-7; cf. Matt 28:16-18; Mark 16:14; Luke 24:33-38; John 20:19-20).

[3] David Konstan and Ilaria Ramelli, “The Syntax of Εν Χριστω in 1 Thessalonians 4:16,” Journal of Biblical Literature 126, no. 3 (2007): 579–93.

[4] Note that “especially” (Gk: malista) carries a sense of specialness, but not exclusivity; see how Paul uses this word elsewhere (Gal. 6:10; Phil. 4:22; 1 Tim. 5:8, 17; 2 Tim. 4:13; Tit. 1:10; Philem. 16), notably in Galatians 6:10, which is extremely similar to 1 Timothy 4:10 in construction and meaning. God is the savior “especially” of believers because he begins to save us from sin in this life.

[5] Exod. 10:1; Deut. 2:30; 30:6; Josh. 11:19-20; Ezra 1:1; 6:22; 7:27; Neh. 7:5; Ps. 33:13-15; 105:23-25; Prov. 16:1, 4, 9; 19:21; 20:24; 21:1; Jer. 10:23; 24:7; Ezek. 36:36-37; Dan. 4:35; Matt. 11:25; 13:10-11; John 1:12-13; 6:44, 64-65; 15:16; Acts 13:48; Rom. 8:28-30; 9:15-18; 11:32; 12:3; 1 Cor. 1:27-28; 3:5-9; Eph. 1:4-5, 11; Phil. 1:29; 2:13; 1 Thess. 1:4; 2 Thess. 2:13; 2 Tim. 1:9; 2:25-26; Heb. 6:1-3; 1 Pet. 2:8; Jude 4.

[6] To put this argument in the form of a deductive syllogism: (1) God has the power to bring all people to faith in him; (2) God wills all people to come to faith in him; (3) thus, God will cause all people to come to faith in him.

[7] For more extensive argumentation in favor of Christian universalism, see Gregory MacDonald, The Evangelical Universalist, 2nd ed. (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 2012); Thomas Talbott, The Inescapable Love of God, 2nd ed. (Eugene: Wipf and Stock, 2014); David Bentley Hart, That All Shall Be Saved: Heaven, Hell, and Universal Salvation (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2019). For the long pedigree of this view throughout the history of Christianity, see Ilaria Ramelli, The Christian Doctrine of Apokatastasis: A Critical Assessment from the New Testament to Eriugena (Boston: Brill, 2013); Ilaria Ramelli, A Larger Hope? Universal Salvation from Christian Beginnings to Julian of Norwich (Eugene: Wipf and Stock, 2019); Robin Parry and Ilaria Ramelli, A Larger Hope? Universal Salvation from the Reformation to the Nineteenth Century (Eugene: Wipf and Stock, 2019).

[8] Many object to the view that Christ will actually stop reigning and be subjected to God at the end, but Paul couldn’t be clearer on this point. He states that Christ will, at this time, “hand over the kingdom to the God and Father,” that “he will reign until” such a time, and that “the Son himself will be subjected to” God. The idea that the Messiah will stop reigning once all enemies have been subjected to God comes from Psalm 110:1-2, one of the most quoted Messianic prophecies in the New Testament: “Yahweh says to my Lord, ‘Sit at my right hand until I make your enemies a footstool for your feet. Yahweh shall send the staff of your strength from Zion. Rule in the midst of your enemies!’” The very reason that Jesus now sits at the right hand of God is to subject all to him; to say that Jesus will never stop reigning is to say that he will ultimately fail in the purpose for which he was sent. And of course, Jesus can only “rule in the midst of [his] enemies” as long as there are enemies.

[9] It would be impossible for anyone to resist coming to God once they meet him face-to-face. Although I disagree with Thomas Aquinas on many things, he is correct when he states, “if the will be offered an object which is good universally and from every point of view, the will tends to it of necessity, if it wills anything at all; since it cannot will the opposite... consequently, that good alone which is perfect and lacking in nothing, is such a good that the will cannot not-will it: and this is Happiness“ (Summa Theologica II.I.10.2). Sin is merely the result of an impaired will that can't see what is truly good for itself, so knowing the truth sets us free from sin (cf. John 8:31-34). Thus, when all our mental defects are taken away at the resurrection, we'll have no more propensity to sin.

[10] Luke 7:43; 12:57; John 7:24; 8:15; Acts 3:13; 4:19; 13:46; 15:19; 16:4, 15; 20:16; 21:25; 25:25; 26:8; 27:1; Rom. 2:3; 14:5, 13; 1 Cor. 2:2; 7:37; 11:13; 2 Cor. 2:1; 5:14; Tit. 3:12.

Punishment and Salvation: The Messianic Age (part 2 of 3)

Part 1: The Fall of Jerusalem

    In the last section of this paper, we saw that many of the judgment passages in the New Testament actually relate to the fall of Jerusalem in AD 70, which was of great redemptive-historical significance because it destroyed the last physical vestiges of the Old Covenant. This judgment is referred to in Jesus’ mentions of Gehenna (Matt. 5:22, 29-30; 10:28; 18:8-9; 23:33; Mark 9:43-48; Luke 12:5), in his parables about the end of the age (Matt. 13:37-43, 47-50; cf. 24:1-3), in his parable about ‘the Sheep and the Goats’ (Matt. 25:31-46), in his reference to “the resurrection of judgment” (John 5:28-29), in Paul’s description of “eonian destruction, away from the presence of the Lord” (2 Thess. 1:5-10), and in the ‘Great White Throne Judgment’ (Rev. 20:11-15).

    Most of these passages are conventionally thought to refer to the final judgment at the Second Coming, rather than the AD 70 fall of Jerusalem. As our exegesis has shown that these passages do in fact describe God’s judgment on unbelieving Israel, rather than a future judgment, one might be tempted to relate all prophecies about judgment to AD 70 (as full preterists do). So is it possible to relate all other judgment passages to the fall of Jerusalem as well, and if not, do they refer to a future judgment or something else? What about the passages that describe the salvation and blessing of believers in Christ; do these refer to past blessings, present blessings, or something still future?

    Eonian Life

    In order to understand the other blessings and punishments described in the New Testament, it is important to have a correct understanding of the phrase “eonian life” (zōē aiōnia). Because this phrase is commonly translated as “eternal life,” many Christians understand it to refer to the immortality that we will receive at the resurrection. However, the Greek adjective aiōnios is derived from aiōn (“age”), which refers to a temporal period with an end. Although aiōnios can mean “eternal” in certain contexts (e.g., Rom. 16:26), it also refers to temporal things in dozens of instances throughout the LXX. [1] Based on an extensive study of the use of aiōnios in biblical and extra-biblical texts, scholars Ilaria Ramelli and David Konstan have determined that zōē aiōnios means “life of the [Messianic] age.” [2] Therefore, we should not assume that eonian life will necessarily be eternal, nor that it refers to immortality.

    According to Jesus, it is “the righteous” who receive eonian life (Matt. 25:46), including those who have lost family members or possessions due to persecution (Matt. 19:29-30; Mark 10:29-31; Luke 18:29-30). In the gospel of John, those who believe in Christ are said to receive eonian life (3:15, 16, 36; 5:24; 6:40, 47). The book of Acts refers to some people as “unworthy of eonian life” and states that “as many as were appointed to eonian life believed” (13:46, 48). Paul says that eonian life is “the gift of God... through Jesus Christ” (Rom. 6:22-23; cf. 2 Thess. 2:16; Tit. 3:7), and that those who have faith toward Christ and God will receive it (Rom. 2:7; Gal. 6:8; cf. 1 Tim. 1:16; 6:12, 19). Overall, the consistent testimony of the New Testament is that only those who have faith in Jesus as Messiah receive eonian life.

    When is eonian life received? Although it’s often thought that zōē aiōnios is merely a postmortem blessing which will be received after the resurrection, John repeatedly states that eonian life is something which we “have” in the present tense (John 3:36; 5:24; 6:47, 54; 1 John 5:11, 13). Nonetheless, other New Testament writers say that eonian life is still future from their perspective (Matt. 19:29; 25:46; Gal. 6:8; 1 Tim. 6:19; Tit. 1:2; 3:7), and Jesus states that it will be inherited “in the age to come” (Mark 10:30; Luke 18:30). The New Testament era was a time of transition between the Old and New Covenants (Heb. 8:13), and the age of the Old Covenant did not end until AD 70 (Matt. 24:1-3), when the kingdom of God finally came “with power” (Mark 9:1; Luke 21:31-32; cf. Matt. 24:30).

    This means that eonian life is a blessing which is enjoyed in the present Messianic (New Covenant) age, which began during Jesus’ ministry and was fully inaugurated in AD 70; it is not something that will only be inherited in the future (such as immortality). But what exactly is eonian life? Fortunately, Jesus defined it for us:

“Now this is eonian life, that they may know You, the only true God, and Jesus the Messiah whom You have sent.” (John 17:3)

According to Jesus, eonian life is defined as the state of knowing God and Christ (cf. Heb. 8:10-12). This is more than a mere intellectual knowledge, and involves God and his Son actually coming to dwell in communion with us (John 14:23; 1 John 1:3; 2:24; 3:23-24; 4:12-13; cf. 1 Cor. 3:16; Eph. 3:17). The love of God is being “perfected” in those who are in communion with the Father and the Son (1 John 2:5; 4:12, 18), so that we are being “conformed to the image of His Son” (Rom. 8:29; cf. 2 Cor. 3:18). This is a spiritual blessing which we believers presently possess, not something to be fulfilled in the future.

    Jesus’ statement in the gospel of John that eonian life is a present spiritual blessing, rather than a future blessing, is supported by Paul’s claims in Romans 2:

To those who by patiently doing good seek for glory and honor and immortality, [God] will give eonian life... There will be... glory and honor and peace for everyone who does good, both the Jew first and the Greek. (Rom. 2:7, 10)

By parallelism, Paul defines “eonian life” as “glory and honor and peace.” These are spiritual blessings which are enjoyed in our present life as believers (Rom. 8:6; 14:17; 15:13; 2 Cor. 3:18; Gal. 5:22-24; Phil. 4:7, 19; Col. 1:27; 2 Thess. 2:14; 3:16; etc.).

    Moreover, the salvation that believers experience is not a salvation from postmortem punishment. In the New Testament, there are numerous types of salvation that are spoken of [3], but by far the most common salvation spoken of is salvation from our sin. [4] In a few instances, Paul talks about our salvation from God’s wrath (Rom. 5:9; 1 Thess. 1:10; 5:9), but there is no indication that this refers to postmortem punishment. Throughout the Bible, God’s wrath consistently refers to temporal punishments in this life. [5] Because of our eonian life (communion with God and Christ), we are being saved from our sin, as the spirit of God is producing within us “love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, generosity, faithfulness,  gentleness, and self-control” (Gal. 5:22-23; cf. John 15:5; Col. 3:12-17; 2 Pet. 1:5-8).

    Punishment of Sins

    In his epistles, Paul repeatedly states that some people “will not inherit the kingdom of God” (1 Cor. 6:9-11; 15:50; Gal. 5:19-21; Eph. 5:5). This is sometimes taken to refer to a future judgment in which some people will be given an inheritance in the kingdom of God, and others will be shut out (cf. Matt. 25:34, 46). However, this does not cohere with Paul’s understanding of the kingdom of God; as he states elsewhere, “the kingdom of God is... righteousness and peace and joy in the Holy Spirit” (Rom. 14:17). In other words, an inheritance in the kingdom of God is the same thing as eonian life, as it refers to the present spiritual blessings. Those who do not have faith in Christ, and do not have God’s spirit, cannot partake of these blessings (cf. Gal. 5:22-24).

    The same presently ongoing judgment is spoken of in Paul’s description of “the day of wrath” in Romans 2:

... by your hard and impenitent heart you are storing up wrath for yourself on the day of wrath, when God’s righteous judgment will be revealed. He will repay according to each one’s deeds: to those who by patiently doing good seek for glory and honor and immortality, he will give eonian life, while for those who are self-seeking and who obey not the truth but injustice, there will be wrath and fury. There will be affliction and distress for everyone who does evil, both the Jew first and the Greek, but glory and honor and peace for everyone who does good, both the Jew first and the Greek. (Rom. 2:5-10)

    This “day of wrath” cannot refer to the AD 70 fall of Jerusalem, because it encompasses “both the Jew first and the Greek”. Nor can it refer to a future final judgment, because Paul stated earlier in the epistle that “the wrath of God is being revealed upon all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men” (Rom. 1:18). Therefore, it must be an ongoing judgment in which those who do good are rewarded with “eonian life,” and those who do evil are rewarded with “affliction and distress.” The “day of wrath” must not refer to a literal day, but to the “day” in which the Messiah would reign and judge the gentiles (Isa. 11:10-12; 42:1-4; Zech. 2:11; 14:9; 2 Cor. 6:2; cf. Acts 17:30-31). Notably, throughout the Hebrew Bible, there appears to be no knowledge of a single post-mortem judgment by the Messiah, but the idea that the Messiah would establish justice all throughout his reign (Isa. 2:3-4; 11:1-5; 16:5; 42:1-4; Jer. 23:5; Mic. 4:1-4; Zech. 14:16-19).

    Elsewhere in Paul’s epistles, he describes the punishment of the sins of unbelievers as “death” (Rom. 6:16, 21-23; 8:6, 13; 2 Cor. 7:10; cf. Luke 13:3, 5; John 3:16; 1 Cor. 1:18; 2 Cor. 2:15; 4:3; 2 Thess. 2:10). This cannot refer to literal death, because this ‘death’ will never be experienced by believers (John 3:16; 8:51; 10:28; 11:26; Rom. 8:13; 2 Cor. 2:15-16). Moreover, before we had faith in Christ, we existed in this state of ‘death’ (Rom. 7:9-13; Eph. 2:1-5; Col. 2:13; 1 Tim. 5:6; Rev. 3:1). When we first believed, we “passed from death to life” (John 5:24; 1 John 3:14; cf. Rom. 6:13; Eph. 5:14), and now we “walk in newness of life” (Rom. 6:4). Thus, ‘death’ as punishment for sin refers to a lack of eonian life, in the same way that literal death is a lack of life.

    This judgment is also described in the gospel of John as follows:

For God did not send his Son into the world to judge the world, but so that the world may be saved through him. Those who believe in him are not judged, but those who do not believe have already been judged, because they did not believe in the name of the unique Son of God. Now this is the judgment: the Light has come into the world, and people loved the darkness more than the Light, for their deeds were evil. For everyone who does evil hates the Light and does not come to it, so that their deeds may not be exposed; but those who do the truth come to the Light, so that their works which have been done in God may become manifest. (John 3:17-21)

In this passage, the judgment of unbelievers is explicitly said to have already taken place, and is ongoing. This is confirmed by John 3:36, which states that “the wrath of God abides” on the one who does not obey the Son. This judgment of ‘darkness’ or ‘perishing’ arises from a failure to come to the Light and the Life, namely Jesus (John 8:12; 11:25; 14:6), so that one remains in their sins.

    Therefore, according to the New Testament, the punishment for unbelievers’ sins occurs in this life, and consists of the lack of spiritual blessings (love, joy, peace, etc.) that come from knowing God and Christ. They are “having no hope and without God in the world” (Eph. 2:12).

    This is perfectly in line with the testimony of the Old Testament, especially the book of Proverbs, which tells us that the righteous and the wicked are judged in this life for their deeds (see esp. 11:31). Even Qoheleth (Ecclesiastes), who apparently had no knowledge of a future resurrection, concludes that it is better in this life to have faith in God and follow his commandments (12:13-14). [6] Throughout the Old Testament, there is no hint of any postmortem judgment, and the severest punishments that can be brought upon sinners are the covenantal curse of exile (Lev. 26:27-33; Deut. 28:58-68) and/or premature death. [7] The author of the epistle to the Hebrews says that under the Old Covenant, “every transgression or disobedience received a just punishment” (Heb 2:2). Those who follow God find “peace” and “rest for your souls” in this life (Psa. 119:165; Prov. 3:17; Isa. 26:3; Jer. 6:16), whereas “there is no peace for the wicked” (Isa. 48:22; 57:21; cf. Rom. 3:17).

    Objections

    A common objection to the view that people are rewarded and punished in this life is that it leads to a ‘prosperity gospel’ like the one taught by Joel Osteen. The ‘prosperity gospel’ is the belief that God will reward believers in this life with material blessings and wealth, because he wants us to be happy. This view is not only contradicted by Scripture (e.g., Luke 6:20-26; 12:15; John 16:33; 1 Tim. 6:9-11), but it also leads to a lack of compassion for those who are in poverty or suffering, as their lack of material blessings would be equivalent to a lack of faith or punishment for sin.

    However, the view that people are rewarded and punished in this life is not the same thing as the ‘prosperity gospel.’ Although it’s true that followers of God will be “happy” (makarios; Matt. 5:3-12), this does not translate to material blessings, but spiritual blessings. As Paul said, “the kingdom of God is not eating or drinking, but righteousness and peace and joy in the Holy Spirit” (Rom. 14:17). In the first century, and even today, many believers experienced persecution which led to a lack of material wealth (John 16:2, 31-33; 2 Tim 2:9; 3:10-12; 1 Pet. 2:18-21; etc.).

    Nonetheless, Peter said that “even if you should suffer for what is right, you are happy [makarios]” (1 Pet. 3:14). James says, “Consider it all joy when you fall into various trials” (Jas. 1:2, 3; cf. Rom. 5:3). Jesus told his disciples that they would have peace, courage, and joy in the face of persecution (John 16:20-24, 33). Paul wrote that he was “as having nothing, yet possessing everything” (2 Cor. 6:4-10). It is a consistent theme throughout the New Testament that even though we may not have material wealth, we still possess the spiritual blessings that come from knowing God and Jesus.

    Moreover, throughout the Bible, it is said that the wicked sometimes prosper materially, which is seen as a great injustice (Job 21:7-13; Psa. 73:3-9; Ecc. 7:15; Jer. 12:1; Hab. 1:13; etc.). But despite their material wealth, “there is no peace for the wicked” (Isa. 48:22; 57:20, 21). The wicked can never be “happy” (Gk: makarios) in the same way that the righteous are (Luke 6:20-26), for they are “without Christ… having no hope and without God in the world” (Eph. 2:12). This can be seen in Psalm 73: although David originally envied the wicked for their material wealth, he realized that it was far better to be poor and know God than to be wealthy and without God (vv. 16-28). Furthermore, God sometimes acts in other ways to punish the wicked, such as taking away their wealth or giving them a premature death. [7]

    Does this mean that we should not have compassion on those who suffer? Not at all! First, there is no way to outwardly tell who is “suffering for good” and who is “suffering for evil” (1 Pet. 3:17). Moreover, even if someone is “suffering for evil,” they still deserve compassion. When Paul said that one of the believers in the Corinthian church was suffering for their sin, he also declared that “you should forgive and console him, so that he may not be overwhelmed by even worse grief” (2 Cor. 2:7; cf. 1 Cor. 5:5). Finally, Paul says that God “consoles us in all our affliction, so that we may be able to console those who are in any affliction with the consolation with which we ourselves are consoled by God” (2 Cor. 1:4). In other words, our spiritual blessings are not given to us in spite of others, but so that we can share them compassionately with others. Indeed, those who have eonian life are being “perfected in love” (1 John 2:5; 4:12, 18).

    But surely, if all sin is punished in this life, then people will just sin with no consequences? Again, this completely misses the point. No postmortem punishment for sin does not mean no punishment for sin at all. To the contrary, it means that punishment for sin is assured in this life, whatever form it may take. At least for me, this is more of a deterrent from sin, because my punishment would be in the here-and-now rather than in some distant future. Surely, any follower of Jesus can affirm that it is far better to “walk in newness of life” than to be “without Christ... having no hope and without God in the world” (Rom. 6:4; Eph. 2:12). Those who fail to love their neighbor, and thereby sin, are pushed further away from fellowship with God and his Son and the peace and joy that comes with it (1 John 2:3-6; 3:14-17, 23, 24; 4:7-12, 16-21). This should be a great deterrent from sin for any Christian. [8]

    Another objection is that this view removes any need for Christ’s sacrifice. But according to the Bible itself, what did Christ die for? He died to save us from our sins; not just the punishment of our sins, but the act of sinning itself (Matt. 1:21; Acts 13:39; 1 Cor. 15:3; Gal. 1:3-4; Tit. 2:11-14; 1 Pet. 1:18, 19). Jesus died as an example of obedience so that we might “live to righteousness” (1 Pet. 2:24, 25), and his death allows us to come into a relationship with God and himself (Rom. 5:6-11; Eph. 2:16). It’s true that this is not the only reason he died; he also died to “abolish death and bring life and immortality to light” (2 Tim. 1:10), which I’ll discuss more in the next section of this paper. But the point is that Christ dying for our sins, rather than for the punishment of our sins, by no means makes his sacrifice of no effect (and is more biblical).

    In summary, the testimony of the New Testament is that “eonian life” and “the kingdom of God” are not rewards to be enjoyed in the far-distant future, but in this life, as they refer to our relationship with God and Christ and the spiritual blessings which come from that (see esp. John 17:3; Rom. 14:17). Moreover, the punishment for sin which is described as ‘death’ and ‘darkness’ is not a future punishment, but refers to the state of being “without God in the world” which we existed in before we became believers (see esp. Eph. 2:1-5, 12). This agrees with the Old Testament belief that the righteous and the wicked are judged and recompensed in this life (see esp. Prov. 11:31).

    But what about the Second Coming of Jesus and the resurrection of the dead, both of which are still future? In the next section, we will discuss the Second Coming and resurrection, and the various passages which describe this all-important future event.

Part 3: The Eternal State

______________________________

[1] Gen. 17:17, 8, 13, 19; 48:4; Exod. 12:14, 17; 27:21; 28:43; 29:28; 30:21; 31:16, 17; Lev. 6:18, 22; 7:34, 36; 10:9, 15; 16:29, 31, 34; 17:7; 23:14, 21, 31, 41; 24:3, 8, 9; 25:34; Num. 10:8; 15:15; 18:8, 11, 19, 23; 19:10, 21; 25:13; 1 Chron. 16:17; Job 3:18; 10:22; 21:11; 41:4; Psa, 76:4; 78:66; 105:10; Isa, 24:5; 55:13; 60:15; Jer. 5:22; 18:16; 20:17; 23:40; 25:9, 12; 51:39; Ezek. 35:5; 35:9; Jon. 2:6; Mic. 2:9.

[2] Ilaria Ramelli and David Konstan, Terms for Eternity: Aiônios and Aïdios in Classical and Christian Texts (Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2013).

[3] For example, salvation from sickness (Matt. 9:21, 22; Mark 5:23; Acts 4:9); sinking (Matt. 8:24, 25; 14:30); enemies (Luke 1:71, 74); love of money (Luke 19:8-10); death (John 11:12; Heb. 5:7); fear of death (Heb. 2:14, 15); earthly trials (2 Pet. 2:9); and Egypt (Jude 5).

[4] Matt. 1:21; Luke 1:77; John 1:29; 8:33-36; Acts 2:40; 5:31; 13:36-39; 26:18; Rom. 6:16-23, 7:21-25, 8:1-4; 1 Cor. 15:3; Gal. 1:3, 4; Eph. 2:1-5; 1 Tim. 1:15; Tit. 2:11-14; 3:3-5; 1 Pet. 1:18, 19; 2:1-3, 21-25; 2 Pet. 2:20.

[5] Exod. 22:24; 32:10; Num. 11:1, 33; 16:46; 32:13; Deut. 1:34, 35; 6:13; 9:8, 19; 11:17; 29:23, 28; 31:17; Josh. 23:16; Judg. 2:14; 3:8; 10:7; 1 Sam. 28:18; 2 Sam. 6:7; 2 Kgs. 13:3; 22:17; 24:20; Job 21:17; Isa. 5:25; 9:19; 10:5, 25; 13:9; Jer. 4:8, 26; 7:20; 12:13; 25:37, 38; 32:37; 33:5; 42:18; 44:6; 52:3; Lam. 2:1, 3, 6, 21; 4:11; Ezek. 5:15; 7:3, 8; 9:8; 20:8; 21:31; 22:20; 25:14; Jon. 3:9; Nah. 1:6; Hab. 3:12; Hos. 13:11; Luke 21:23; John 3:36; Rom. 1:18; Eph. 2:3; 5:6; Col. 3:6; 1 Thess. 2:16; Rev. 6:17; 11:18.

[6] Howard N. Bream, “Life Without Resurrection: Two Perspectives from Qoheleth,” in A Light unto My Path: Old Testament Studies in Honor of Jacob M. Myers, ed. Howard Bream, Ralph Heim, and Carey Moore (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1974): 49-65; Jesse M. Peterson, “Did Qoheleth Believe in an Afterlife?,” JTS 73, no. 2 (2022): 474-486.

[7] Gen. 6:5-7; 19:24-26; Exod. 14:28; 21:12-17, 23; 22:19-24; Lev. 10:1, 2; 18:29; 20:2-16; Num. 16:31-35, 49; Deut. 13:5, 9, 15; 19:11-13, 19-21; 21:21; 22:20-26; Judg. 9:56, 57; 1 Sam. 2:25; 2 Sam. 6:7; 2 Kgs. 1:4; 1 Chron. 13:9-12; 2 Chron. 21:18, 19; Psa. 9:5-8, 15-17; 31:17, 18; 37:35-38; 52:5; 73:27; Prov. 3:1, 2; 9:10, 11; 10:27; Ezek. 18:4, 20; cf. Acts 5:1-11; 12:21-23; 1 Cor. 11:27-30.

[8] In fact, this view should be more of a deterrent from sin for a Christian, because those who believe in postmortem punishment typically think that believers are not punished for their sins, whereas those who do not believe in postmortem punishment think that believers are still punished for sin in this life.

Punishment and Salvation: The Fall of Jerusalem (part 1 of 3)

    The standard view of punishment and salvation within Christianity is that, upon death, all believers in Christ go to eternal bliss in heaven, while those who did not put their faith in Jesus are eternally tortured in hell. Many Christians, if asked about the foundation of this belief, will claim that it is the only biblical view and can point to several Scripture passages to argue their case; others will appeal to tradition, since this is the interpretation that has been taught by the majority of Christianity for about 1,500 years. Nonetheless, this is not the interpretation which makes the best sense of all relevant biblical passages. In this paper, I will be arguing for a very different view of punishment and salvation.

    The Sentence of Gehenna

    The majority of Christians believe that after death, unbelievers will go to a place called ‘hell’ to be punished for their failure to have faith in Jesus. Most even believe that the torture in ‘hell’ will last for eternity, while others believe that this punishment will be temporary, and refine unbelievers for ultimate salvation. However, many would be surprised to hear that the word “hell” is not found in the Bible at all. Rather, the word which is translated as “hell” twelve times in modern Bible translations is geenna, which is in fact a proper noun meaning “Gehenna” (Valley of Hinnom).

    The Valley of Hinnom is a valley to the southwest of Jerusalem, which was first used to define the boundary of the territory of Judah (Josh. 15:8; 18:16; cf. Neh. 11:30). Later on, it became the site of child sacrifices to the Canaanite god Molech, which caused the Israelites to consider it defiled (2 Chron. 28:3; 33:6; Jer. 7:31; 32:35; cf. 2 Kgs. 23:10). Because of this, when the first siege and destruction of Jerusalem took place in 587 BC, God declared that the bodies of the dead Judeans would be cast into the Valley of Hinnom to be eaten by wild animals (Jer. 19:3-7).

    Later Jewish writings began to call the place of postmortem punishment “Gehenna,” which is partially why modern translations translate geenna as “hell.” Nonetheless, this tradition arose only well after Jesus’ ministry. The first explicit references to Gehenna as a place of postmortem punishment, rather than the literal Valley of Hinnom, are in 4 Ezra 7.26-36 and Sybilline Oracles 4.176-191, both written after AD 70. [1] Such a tradition could not have arisen and circulated in time to be understood by all of Jesus’ listeners. Instead, Jesus’ listeners would have associated the Valley of Hinnom with child sacrifice and the destruction of Jerusalem, as it is in the Old Testament.

    Do the New Testament references to Gehenna make more sense in light of the Old Testament view of the Valley of Hinnom or on the “hell” view? In multiple passages about Gehenna, Jesus indicates that it is a place into which one’s physical body can be thrown (Matt. 5:29-30; 18:8-9; Mark 9:43-48). This means that it must be a physical location rather than a non-corporeal place of punishment. When talking about Gehenna in Mark 9:43-48, Jesus quotes an Old Testament passage, which talks about corpses decaying and burning in a location visible from Jerusalem (Isa. 66:20-24). This strongly implies that Jesus was referring to the literal Valley of Hinnom when he spoke of geenna, rather than a place of postmortem punishment, which Gehenna was not associated with until after AD 70.

    Furthermore, Jesus also refers to “the sentence of Gehenna” in a crucial passage which demonstrates the historical referent of his warnings about the Valley of Hinnom:

“You snakes, you brood of vipers, how can you escape the sentence of Gehenna? For this reason I send you prophets, sages, and scribes, some of whom you will kill and crucify, and some you will flog in your synagogues and pursue from town to town, so that upon you may come all the righteous blood shed on earth, from the blood of righteous Abel to the blood of Zechariah son of Barachiah, whom you murdered between the sanctuary and the altar.

“Truly I tell you, all this will come upon this generation. Jerusalem, Jerusalem, the city that kills the prophets and stones those who are sent to it! How often have I desired to gather your children together as a hen gathers her brood under her wings, and you were not willing! See, your house is left to you, desolate.” (Matt. 23:33-38)

    Here, Jesus promises that the hypocritical scribes and Pharisees whom he is addressing will receive “the sentence of Gehenna.” He also says that it will come upon “this generation” (Gk: tēn genean tautēn), which consistently refers to the first-century Jewish religious leaders in the gospel of Matthew (11:16; 12:39, 41, 42, 45; 16:4; 17:17). Later on, he equates this with a judgment on Jerusalem which will cause its “house” (the Temple) to become “desolate.” All of this was fulfilled in AD 70, when Jerusalem was besieged, the Second Temple was burned, and:

the seditious at first gave orders that the dead should be buried out of the public treasury, as they could not endure the stench of their dead bodies. But afterwards, when they could not do that, they had them cast down from the walls into the valleys beneath. (Josephus, Wars 5.12.3)

This judgment on Jerusalem graphically fulfilled “the sentence of Gehenna” prophesied by Jesus, and it came upon the first-century Jewish leaders, just as he had promised. This parallels the destruction of Jerusalem that took place in 587 BC, in which the dead bodies were also cast into the Valley of Hinnom, and the valley was associated with Jerusalem’s fall (Jer. 7:31-33; 19:2-7).

    Only one question remains: if the judgment of Gehenna was fulfilled completely in AD 70, then how is it that Jesus also describes this as “unquenchable” or “eternal fire”? (Matt. 18:8-9; Mark 9:43, 48; cf. Matt. 3:12) As it happens, this also draws upon Old Testament imagery. Throughout the writings of the prophets, “unquenchable fire” consistently symbolizes God’s judgment upon a nation, especially with regard to the 587 BC siege of Jerusalem and exile of Israel (Jer. 4:4; 7:20; 17:27; 21:10-12; Ezek. 20:47-48; Amos 5:5-6). Hence, when Jesus talks about “unquenchable fire” in the Valley of Hinnom, he is still referring to the second fall of Jerusalem and exile that took place in AD 70.

    In summary, when Jesus spoke of Gehenna in the gospel accounts, he was not referring to a non-corporeal realm of ‘hell’ in which unbelievers would be punished after death. Instead, geenna refers to the literal Valley of Hinnom outside of Jerusalem, which became associated with child sacrifices and the destruction of Jerusalem in the Old Testament (Jer. 7:31-33). Jesus prophesied that “the sentence of Gehenna” would come upon his first-century contemporaries and would be associated with the fall of Jerusalem and the Temple (Matt. 23:33-38), and this was graphically fulfilled in AD 70, when at the end of the Roman siege and destruction of Jerusalem, the bodies of the dead were cast into the Valley of Hinnom.

    The Furnace and Lake of Fire

    Jesus in the book of Matthew also describes a judgment in his parables about the kingdom of God, which he says will take place “at the conclusion of the age.” This judgment is described as follows:

“The one who sows the good seed is the Son of Man; the field is the world, and the good seed are the children of the kingdom; the weeds are the children of the evil one, and the enemy who sowed them is the devil; the harvest is the conclusion of the age, and the reapers are angels. Just as the weeds are collected and burned up with fire, so will it be at the conclusion of the age. The Son of Man will send his angels, and they will collect out of his kingdom all causes of sin and all evildoers, and they will throw them into the furnace of fire, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth. Then the righteous will shine like the sun in the kingdom of their Father.” (Matt. 13:37-43)

“Again, the kingdom of heaven is like a net that was thrown into the sea and caught fish of every kind; when it was full, they drew it ashore, sat down, and put the good into baskets but threw out the bad. So it will be at the conclusion of the age. The angels will come out and separate the evil from the righteous and throw them into the furnace of fire, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth.“ (Matt. 13:47-50)

These parables are typically thought to describe a final judgment at Christ’s Second Coming. But is this the most likely interpretation?

    First of all, in both instances, the judgment is said to take place at “at the conclusion of the age” (tē sunteleia tou aiōnios). This is a technical phrase which is used later in Matthew’s gospel in conjunction with the destruction of the Second Temple complex (24:1-3; cf. Mark 13:1-4; Luke 21:5-7), which took place in AD 70. Other NT writers state that they are living at “the conclusion of the ages” (Heb. 9:26) or “the end of the ages” (1 Cor. 10:11; cf. Acts 2:17; Heb. 1:2). Paul said that “the rulers of this age” had crucified Jesus (the Jewish leadership), and they were already “being destroyed” (1 Cor. 2:6-8). This is the age of the Old Covenant, which was “passing away” after Christ’s death (Heb. 8:13), and finally reached its end when the physical Temple was destroyed in AD 70 (Heb. 9:8-10).

    If this is the case, how should “the furnace of fire” be understood? We must look to Old Testament parallels to understand this symbol:

“Because you have become dross, I will gather you into the midst of Jerusalem. As one gathers silver, bronze, iron, lead, and tin into a furnace, to blow the fire upon them in order to melt them, so I will gather you in my anger and in my wrath, and I will put you in and melt you. I will gather you and blow upon you with the fire of my wrath, and you shall be melted within it. As silver is melted in a furnace, so you shall be melted in it, and you shall know that I the Lord have poured out my wrath upon you.” (Ezek. 22:19-22)

In other passages, “the furnace” is also used as a metaphor for the Egyptian and Babylonian exiles (Deut. 4:20; 1 Kgs. 8:51; Isa. 48:10; Jer. 11:4). Therefore, this symbolizes a period of judgment for unfaithful Israel, especially the siege of Jerusalem and exile which took place in 587 BC. This was repeated in AD 70, when Jerusalem was destroyed by the Romans and the Jews were exiled again. 

    Moreover, the general tenor of the “parable of the wheat and tares” in Matt. 13:24-30 fits the AD 70 judgment very well. Darnel, or tares, are plants which greatly resemble wheat during the early stages of growth, which is explicitly noted by Jesus (Matt. 13:29). Thus, “the evildoers” in this parable are those who would appear to be God’s people, but ultimately turn out to be wicked. This can only refer to first-century apostate Israel which appeared righteous on the outside, but its true colors showed when the unbelieving Jews persecuted Christ’s followers until their judgment at the fall of Jerusalem (Matt. 23:25-39). Jesus even referred to them as the children of the devil (John 8:44; cf. Matt. 13:38). The kingdom of God was ultimately taken from them and given to another (Matt. 21:43-45; cf. 13:41).

    How is the “furnace of fire” related to another punishment described in the New Testament, the “lake of fire” (Rev. 20:14-15)? Most Christians understand them to be the same thing, and I believe that this is correct. Some national judgments in the Old Testament are depicted as a lake or stream of fire (Isa. 30:31-33; 34:9-10; Dan. 7:10-11), which seems to be the background of Revelation’s symbolism. This punishment is also described as “the second death” (Rev. 20:14). The covenantal curses against unfaithful Israel are referred to as “death” in Deut. 30:15-20; this is elaborated in the prophets, where the exiles are symbolized by dead bodies (Isa. 26:19; Ezek. 37:1-13). Thus, the combined imagery of “the lake of fire” and “the second death” suggests the second national death (exile) of Israel which began with the fall of Jerusalem in AD 70.

    This is supported by the fact that Revelation is bookended by statements that “these things must soon take place” and “the time is near” (1:1, 3; 22:6, 10). Based on the biblical literary device of inclusio, [2] this means that the entire prophetic book, including the “lake of fire,” must have been fulfilled shortly after it was written in the first century. Admittedly, this is difficult to reconcile with some aspects of the vision in Rev. 20:11-15, especially the passing away of “heaven and earth” in v. 11. Nonetheless, it is worth noting that the destruction of heaven and earth is also mentioned in Rev. 6:12-17, a passage which was definitely fulfilled in AD 70 based on Jesus’ own words (Luke 23:28-31). See my commentary on Rev. 20:11-15, and my comments below on 2 Peter 3:10-13, for a fuller discussion of this.

    The Sheep and the Goats

    In the book of Matthew, Jesus describes another judgment which is commonly known as ‘the Sheep and the Goats’ because of the metaphor that is used. Here, we are only concerned with the nature and timing of the judgment, and not any other implications, so I will only quote the pertinent sections of this lengthy prophecy:

“When the Son of Man comes in his glory and all the angels with him, then he will sit on the throne of his glory. All the nations will be gathered before him, and he will separate people one from another as a shepherd separates the sheep from the goats, and he will put the sheep at his right hand and the goats at the left. Then the king will say to those at his right hand, ‘Come, you who are blessed by my Father, inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world’… Then he will say to those at his left hand, ‘You who are accursed, depart from me into the eonian fire prepared for the devil and his messengers’… And these will go away into eonian punishment, but the righteous into eonian life.” (Matt. 25:31-34, 41, 46)

The key to understanding this passage is to recognize that the imagery of ‘separating sheep from goats’ is used in regard to judgment only one other time in Scripture, in Ezekiel 34:17-24, where it is a judgment of believing and unbelieving Israelites that is in view. Likewise, in Zech. 10:2-3, the false teachers of Israel are described as “male goats” whom God will “punish.” This strongly suggests that Jesus has in view a judgment on unbelieving Israel, and especially the Israelite leadership.

    Furthermore, Jesus says that this judgment will occur “when the Son of Man... will sit on the throne of his glory.” The New Testament states that the Son of Man “came on the clouds” to be enthroned at God’s right hand (Dan. 7:13-14) at two separate times: first, at his exaltation (Matt. 26:64; Acts 2:29-36), and again at the AD 70 judgment (Matt. 24:30). Because no judgment took place when Jesus was exalted to heaven, this judgment must have occurred at Jesus’ second enthronement in AD 70, in which case the judgment may be equated with the First Jewish-Roman War.

    The difficulty with this interpretation is that Jesus says that “all nations will be gathered before him,” which suggests that it is gentiles who are being judged. However, elsewhere in the Olivet discourse, “all nations” refers to representatives of all nations — after all, it is not true that every single gentile heard the gospel or hated Christians before AD 70, although “all nations” did (Matt. 24:9-15; cf. Rom. 10:18). Moreover, the Jewish diaspora was said to comprise “all nations under heaven” when they were gathered in Jerusalem for the Passover (Acts 2:5-11). According to Josephus, the siege of Jerusalem in AD 70 began on Passover, and millions of diaspora Jews were there (Wars 5.3.1; 6.9.3), so the inhabitants of Jerusalem during the siege could indeed be called “all nations.”

    At the time that the Old Covenant passed away, the kingdom of God would finally be received by Christians with full force, according to the Hebraist (12:26-28; cf. Luke 21:31-32; Rev. 11:13-15). This took place at “the conclusion of the [Old Covenant] age” in AD 70 (Matt. 13:40, 43; 24:3). Therefore, it was at this time that Christians “inherit[ed] the kingdom prepared for [them] from the foundation of the world” (Matt. 25:34). In contrast, the unbelieving Jews were punished with “eonian fire” at this time. [3] The fire is said to be prepared for “the devil and his messengers,” which likely reflects the New Testament concept that the unfaithful Jews were children of the devil and followed his will (John 8:41-44; Rev. 2:9; 3:9). No Christians were harmed in the siege of Jerusalem, because they all fled to Pella in accordance with Jesus’ warnings (Luke 21:20-24). [4]

    What about “eonian punishment” and “eonian life” in v. 46? These are typically translated as “eternal punishment” and “eternal life,” which gives the impression that they refer to punishment and salvation in the eternal state. However, the adjective aiōnios derives from the noun aiōn (“age”), and should be translated as “eonian” or “of the [coming] age” rather than “eternal.” [5] Notably, in the prophecies of Jeremiah, the 70-year exile is repeatedly referred to as aiōnios (18:16; 23:40; 25:9 LXX). After AD 70, the Jewish people were exiled from their homeland for nearly 2,000 years, which (in light of Jeremiah) certainly qualifies as aiōnios.

    In summary, the judgment in Matt. 25:31-46 is not a description of the final judgment, but depicts the Israelite people as sheep and goats (cf. Ezek. 34:17-24; Zech. 10:2-3). The diaspora from “all nations” was gathered in Jerusalem during the AD 70 siege, and the Jewish unbelievers and false teachers there were punished with fire, while the Jewish believers were saved to Pella and received the spiritual blessings of the kingdom with full force. This aligns with the AD 70 theme of the Olivet discourse (Matt. 24:1-3), as Jesus did not finish saying “all these things” until Matt. 26:1 (cf. 23:36; 24:34).

    Destruction of the Persecutors

    Paul rarely speaks about specific judgment events, usually preferring to talk about the ongoing rewards and punishments which God provides to people (e.g., Rom. 2:5-10). However, in one instance, Paul wrote to the Thessalonian church about a punishment that would arrive on their persecutors:

For it is indeed just of God to repay with affliction those who afflict you, and to give relief to you who are afflicted as well as us, when the Lord Jesus is revealed from heaven with his mighty angels in a fiery flame, inflicting vengeance on those who do not know God and on those who do not obey the gospel of our Lord Jesus. These will suffer the punishment of eonian destruction, away from the presence of the Lord and from the glory of his might, when he comes to be glorified by his saints and to be marveled at on that day among all who have believed, because our testimony to you was believed. (2 Thess. 1:6-10)

This passage seems at first to be describing the Second Coming, as it states that Jesus will be “revealed from heaven” and that the Lord “comes to be glorified by his saints.” But is this the best interpretation of Paul’s words here?

    First of all, note that Paul believed that this judgment would bring a reprieve for both “you who are afflicted as well as us.” This implies that the judgment would take place in the near future, when most of the currently-afflicted church of Thessalonica, and their oppressors, were still alive. But who were the oppressors of the Thessalonian church? According to Acts 17:5-13, there were many unbelieving Jews from the diaspora in Thessalonica, who stirred up the gentiles there to persecute Christians. That these were the primary oppressors of the Thessalonians is confirmed by 1 Thess. 2:14-16, in which Paul singles out unbelieving Jews as persecutors of the church. The judgment on unbelieving Israel took place in AD 70 at the destruction of Jerusalem (cf. Luke 19:41-44); thus, Paul is most likely referring to this judgment.

    This is confirmed by Paul’s description of the oppressors’ punishment, which he refers to as “eonian destruction, away from the presence of the Lord.” In the Old Testament, the “presence of Yahweh” was believed to dwell in the land of Israel, so leaving Israel was equivalent to leaving God’s presence (Gen. 4:16; 2 Kgs. 13:23; Jon. 1:3, 10; cf. 2:4). When the people were exiled in 587 BC, this is described as God casting them out of His presence:

Because of Yahweh’s anger, it happened in Jerusalem and Judah that He finally cast them from His presence; and Zedekiah rebelled against Babylon. (2 Kgs. 24:20; Jer. 52:3)

“Therefore behold, I will forget you and utterly forsake you and the city I gave to you and your fathers, and cast you from My presence. I will bring upon you perpetual shame and reproach, which will not be forgotten.” (Jer. 23:39-40)

The people of Israel were again cast “away from the presence of the Lord” in AD 70, when they were exiled from their homeland after the fall of Jerusalem. Notably, the LXX translates Jer. 23:40 as “eonian reproach and eonian disgrace” (LXX: oneidismon aiōnion kai atimion aiōnion), just as Paul describes it as “eonian destruction” (Gk: olethron aiōnion).

    What about the fact that Paul says Jesus was “revealed from heaven” at this time? This doesn’t require a physical Second Coming in AD 70, because Paul also states that God’s wrath is presently being “revealed from heaven” against those who do evil (Rom. 1:18; cf. 2:5). This phrase seems to merely describe the manifestation of righteous judgment, not a visible manifestation in heaven. Furthermore, Jesus did “come to be glorified” when the Temple was destroyed in AD 70; this was not a return to Earth, but a coming to God to receive power and glory as the enthroned ruler of God’s kingdom (Dan. 7:13-14; Matt. 24:3, 30).

    Thus, like many of the other judgment passages in the New Testament, 2 Thess. 1:5-10 was fulfilled in the AD 70 fall of Jerusalem. This interpretation is further supported by the fact that 2 Thess. 1 is widely recognized to allude to Isaiah 2:6-20, which is a prophecy about the judgment of the rebellious house of Jacob.

    Destruction of Heavens and Earth

    Another judgment passage is found in 2 Peter 3, which describes the Day of the Lord and destruction of the heavens and earth. Although this passage only briefly mentions the judgment of the wicked, it is still important for our purposes. This is what Peter writes:

First of all know this, that in the last days scoffers will come, following their own evil desires and saying, “Where is the promise of his coming? For since the fathers fell asleep, all things continue as they were from the beginning of creation!” They deliberately ignore this fact, that by the word of God the heavens existed long ago, and an earth was formed out of water and through water, through which the world of that time was deluged with water and perished. Yet by the same word the present heavens and earth have been reserved for fire, being kept for the day of judgment and destruction of impious men.

Now do not ignore this fact, beloved, that one day with the Lord is like a thousand years, and a thousand years are like one day. The Lord is not slow about the promise, as some esteem slowness, but is patient toward you, not wanting any to perish but all to come to repentance.

Yet the day of the Lord will come like a thief, in which the heavens will pass away with a roar, and the elements will be dissolved with fervent heat, and the earth and the works in it will not be found. Since these things are being dissolved in this way, what sort of person should you be? In holy conduct and piety, expecting and hastening the coming of the day of God, because of which the heavens will be dissolved with fire, and the elements are melting with fervent heat. Yet, according to His promise, we are awaiting new heavens and a new earth, in which righteousness dwells. (2 Pet. 3:3-13)

    First, note that the author states that the “scoffers” will come “in the last days.” Peter elsewhere claims that “the last days” and “the last times” were already present in his day (Acts 2:16-17; 1 Pet. 1:20; cf. Heb. 1:2; 1 John 2:18). He even states in his first epistle that “the end of all things has drawn near” (1 Pet. 4:7). [6] Furthermore, the “coming” which Peter refers to is connected with the Transfiguration (2 Pet. 1:16-19). This can only refer to the “coming of the Son of Man” which Jesus prophesied would occur before all the disciples passed away, which is directly before the Transfiguration in all three synoptic accounts (Matt. 16:27-17:8; Mark 9:1-8; Luke 9:26-36). [7] In the Olivet Discourse, this “coming” is elaborated as the coming of the Messiah in judgment against Jerusalem (Matt. 24:1ff), which was fulfilled in AD 70.

    The complaint of the scoffers in 2 Pet. 3:3-4 confirms that the “coming” referred to here is the judgment of Jerusalem. They claim that “since the fathers fell asleep, all things continue as they were from the beginning of creation!” This would only be a valid criticism of the prophecy if there were a time limit on the prophecy’s fulfillment, related to the death of “the fathers” (apostles). Otherwise, it would be quite difficult for the scoffers to win anyone over with this argument. Notably, Peter does not deny this fact, and with good reason: Jesus did indeed predict that his “coming” against Jerusalem would take place before all the apostles died (Matt. 16:27-28).

    But if the “coming” prophesied in 2 Peter 3 is the AD 70 fall of Jerusalem, how can it be associated with the destruction of the heavens and earth? The key to understanding this is the fact that Scripture often describes God’s covenants symbolically using creation language. For example, consider the following passage:

“I have put My words in your mouth and hidden you in the shadow of My hand, stretching out the heavens and laying the foundations of the earth and saying to Zion, ‘You are My people.’” (Isa. 51:16)

Here, the establishment of God’s covenant with Israel is poetically described as the creation of the heavens and earth. In line with this, the destruction of the First Temple and beginning of the Babylonian Exile is depicted by Jeremiah as the un-creation of heaven and earth, in which the earth once again becomes “formless and empty” and all humans and animals disappear (Jer. 4:16-26; cf. Gen. 1:2). Likewise, the covenantal curses against Israel are depicted as God’s wrath “burning to the depths of Sheol… devouring the earth and its increase” (Deut. 32:22).

    Therefore, when Peter talks about heaven and earth being destroyed by fire, he is not referring to the destruction of the physical creation, but the abrogation of God’s (old) covenant with Israel. The New Testament never looks forward to the destruction of the physical creation, but rather the renewal of the creation at Christ’s Second Coming (Acts 3:21; Rom. 8:18-23). Likewise, the “elements” (Gk: stoicheia) do not refer to the physical elements, but the statutes of the Old Covenant, in line with the use of this word elsewhere in the New Testament (Gal. 4:3, 9; Col. 2:8, 20; Heb. 5:12). Peter clearly anticipates the near fulfillment of this destruction, because he twice refers to it in the present tense (2 Pet. 3:11-12).

    In summary, the judgment described in 2 Peter 3 does not refer to the future Second Coming and a destruction of the physical creation, but the coming of Jesus in judgment against Jerusalem in AD 70. The heavens and earth whose destruction is associated with the “Day of the Lord” in this prophecy are not the physical creation, but the Old Covenant which was passing away after Christ’s death (Heb. 8:13). Likewise, the “new heavens and a new earth” to which Peter looks forward are not a second physical creation, but the New Covenant which fully arrived after the physical Temple was destroyed (Heb. 9:8-10). There will be no future destruction of the physical creation, but rather a renewal of the creation (Acts 3:21; Rom. 8:18-23), so any passage which talks about the destruction of heaven and earth must refer to the violent end of the Old Covenant that occurred in AD 70.

    Other Judgment Passages

    We have already covered most of the New Testament judgment passages that refer to AD 70, but there are a few less-known passages which I believe to describe the first-century judgment of unfaithful Israel. First, Jesus’ condemnation of Capernaum, Bethsaida, and Chorazin in Matthew 11:21-24 was fulfilled in the first century. Here is the passage in question:

“Woe to you, Chorazin! Woe to you, Bethsaida! For if the deeds of power done in you had been done in Tyre and Sidon, they would have repented long ago in sackcloth and ashes. But I tell you, on the day of judgment it will be more tolerable for Tyre and Sidon than for you. And you, Capernaum, will you be exalted to heaven? No, you will be brought down to Hades. For if the deeds of power done in you had been done in Sodom, it would have remained until this day. But I tell you that on the day of judgment it will be more tolerable for the land of Sodom than for you.”

First of all, note that it is the cities themselves which are said to be under judgment; although the people within the cities would certainly be judged along with them, that is not the focus of Jesus’ prophecy. He compares the punishment of these cities with the punishment of “the land of Sodom,” not the people of Sodom (who certainly would not have “remained until this day”).

    When were the cities of Capernaum, Bethsaida, and Chorazin destroyed? Josephus specifically states that Bethsaida (“Julias”) was destroyed by the Romans in AD 68 (Wars 4.7.6). Although the destructions of Capernaum and Chorazin are not specifically mentioned, he says that the Romans fell upon any city which had not been fortified, so that “Galilee was all over filled with fire and blood” in the summer of AD 67 (Wars 3.4.1). Eusebius of Caesarea states in his Onomasticon that the original village of Chorazin was merely a ruin by the fourth century. In contrast to the destruction of these Galilean cities, the cities of Tyre and Sidon and the land of Sodom were spared by the Romans, in line with Jesus’ predictions. Thus, the “day of judgment” referred to in Matt. 10:15 and 11:21-24 was the First Jewish-Roman War (AD 67-70).

    The next judgment passage is found in John 5, in which Jesus refers to a “resurrection” at which some people will be rewarded and others will be punished:

Do not be astonished at this, for the hour is coming when all who are in their graves will hear his voice and will come out: those who have done good to the resurrection of life, and those who have done evil to the resurrection of condemnation.

Although this passage is typically understood to refer to the future bodily resurrection of all people, this is not in line with the usage of the phrase “the hour is coming” elsewhere in John’s gospel. Jesus states that “the hour is coming” to refer to the period leading up to and culminating in the events of AD 70, namely, with regard to the cessation of Temple worship in Jerusalem (John 4:21-23) and the Jewish persecution of Jesus’ followers (16:2, 32). When John wrote his first letter, he believed that they were already living in “the last hour,” because the signs Jesus spoke of were coming to pass (1 John 2:18; cf. Matt. 24:3-5).

    But how can this “resurrection” have been fulfilled in the first century if no one was bodily resurrected at that time? In the immediate context of this passage, Jesus uses resurrection as a metaphor for the spiritual change that takes place when a person begins to follow him (John 5:24-25). Likewise, Paul exhorts his audience to “rise up from the dead” so that “Christ will shine on you” (Eph. 5:14; cf. 2:5-6). Ezekiel uses the metaphor of people rising from their graves to describe Israel’s return from exile (37:11-13; cf. John 5:28). Therefore, in context, the “resurrection” described in John 5:28-29 should not be seen as a bodily resurrection, but as a metaphor for those who believe in Christ.

    This still leaves the question of how some people could have been resurrected to judgment, if this is a metaphor for believing in Christ. Nonetheless, Jesus recognizes the very real possibility for believers to fall away from their faith; later on in John’s gospel, he states that those who “do not abide in [the Vine]” will be “gathered, thrown in the fire, and burned up” (15:1-6). Based on Old Testament parallels, the branches of the vine being “thrown in the fire” most likely represents the AD 70 siege of Jerusalem (Ezek. 15:1-7).

    The Hebraist also recognized that those who returned to Old Covenant Judaism faced a “prospect of judgment and furious fire” which would take place “in a very, very little while” (Heb. 10:26-31, 37-39; cp. 6:4-8). Therefore, like the other instances of “the hour is coming” in John’s gospel, John 5:28-29 describes the period leading up to and culminating in the AD 70 fall of Jerusalem, at which time those who stayed faithful received the benefits of the New Covenant with full force (Heb. 9:8-10) and those who strayed back to the Old Covenant were judged. [8] Simeon spoke of this as “the falling and rising [Gk: anastasin] of many in Israel” (Luke 2:34).

    The final judgment passage to be considered here is Rev. 14:9-11, which states that the followers of the Beast will be “tortured with fire and sulfur in the presence of the holy angels and the Lamb; the smoke of their torture goes up forever and ever, and there is no rest day and night…” Does this passage describe eternal torture of unbelievers or something altogether very different? First of all, it is important to know that this is a fairly clear allusion to Isaiah 34:9-10:

“And the streams of Edom shall be turned into pitch and her soil into sulfur; her land shall become burning pitch. Night and day it shall not be quenched; its smoke shall go up forever. From generation to generation it shall lie waste; no one shall pass through it forever and ever.”

This passage describes the temporal, national judgment on Edom which took place in the sixth century BC. The former land of Edom is obviously no longer a burning waste, and its former capital, Petra, is now a major tourist attraction. However, the nation of Edom ceased to exist after this judgment. Therefore, this language seems not to describe eternal torture of individuals, nor the literal destruction of the land, but the fall of a nation from which it will not recover.

    Which nation does Rev. 14:9-11 symbolize the fall of? Fortunately, we find the answer in Rev. 19:3, which repeats this language: “[God] has judged the great Harlot… Hallelujah! The smoke goes up from her forever and ever.” As discussed in my commentary on Revelation, the Harlot represents first-century Jerusalem, while the Beast represents apostate Israel. [9] The unbelieving Jewish leaders of the first century persecuted and killed Christ and his followers. Their punishment for this was the destruction of Jerusalem which took place in AD 70 (Luke 19:27, 41-44; Matt. 23:33-24:2; Rev. 18:20-24). Thus, the torture of the Beast’s followers in Rev. 14:9-11 does not refer to eternal torture of individuals, but in fact to the first-century judgment on apostate Israel and Jerusalem.

Part 2: The Messianic Age

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[1] Chaim Milikowsky, “Which Gehenna? Retribution and Eschatology in the Synoptic Gospels and in Early Christian Texts,” New Test. Stud. 34 (1988), 239.

[2] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inclusio

[3] See the “furnace of fire” imagery in Ezek. 22:17-22 and Matt. 13:42, 50, as well as the literal fire that engulfed Jerusalem in AD 70 (Wars 6.5.1).

[4] Eusebius, Church History 3.5.3; Epiphanius, Panarion 29.7.8.

[5] Ilaria Ramelli and David Konstan, Terms for Eternity: Aiônios and Aïdios in Classical and Christian Texts, (Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2013); consider that aiōnios is used to refer to temporal things in the LXX at Gen. 17:17, 8, 13, 19; 48:4; Exod. 12:14, 17; 27:21; 28:43; 29:28; 30:21; 31:16, 17; Lev. 6:18, 22; 7:34, 36; 10:9, 15; 16:29, 31, 34; 17:7; 23:14, 21, 31, 41; 24:3, 8, 9; 25:34; Num. 10:8; 15:15; 18:8, 11, 19, 23; 19:10, 21; 25:13; 1 Chron. 16:17; Job 3:18; 10:22; 21:11; 41:4; Psa, 76:4; 78:66; 105:10; Isa. 24:5; 55:13; 60:15; Jer. 5:22; 18:16; 20:17; 23:40; 25:9, 12; 51:39; Ezek. 35:5; 35:9; Jon. 2:6; Mic. 2:9.

[6] The Greek verb engizō (“to draw near”) always refers to events that have come near in place or time; compare 1 Pet. 4:7 with Matt 21:34; 26:45-46; Luke 21:8, 20, 28; 22:1; Acts 7:17.

[7] Some scholars argue that the “coming” prophesied in Matt. 16:27-28 was actually fulfilled by the Transfiguration, but this is not possible for three reasons. (1) This “coming” is said to be “with his angels” and to involve judgment of the wicked; this did not take place in any way at the Transfiguration. (2) Jesus’ statement in Matt. 16:28 implies that some of the disciples would die prior to the “coming,” especially given that the context is a prediction of persecution and martyrdom (16:24-26); the Transfiguration took place only a week later, long before any disciples died. (3) Peter says that the Transfiguration confirmed the validity of the prophecy (2 Pet. 1:16-18), not that it directly fulfilled the prophecy.

[8] This interpretation of John 5:28-29 also applies to Daniel 12:2, which speaks of many awaking in a future time of trouble for Israel, some of whom would awake to “eonian reproach and shame” (LXX: oneidismon kai... aischunēn aiōnion). Notably, Jeremiah uses similar language to describe the first fall of Jerusalem: “eonian reproach and eonian disgrace” (23:40 LXX: oneidismon aiōnion kai atimion aiōnion). The time of trouble was the First Jewish-Roman War (Matt. 24:21; cf. Dan. 12:1), when many awoke to salvation (Rom. 13:11; Eph. 5:14), some of whom fell back and were ashamed at the fall of Jerusalem (Heb. 6:4-8; 10:26-31, 37-39).

[9] See also Kenneth Gentry’s paper, “Jerusalem and the Babylonian Harlot.”

Revelation and Olivet Commentaries

Today, I’m publishing my commentaries on Revelation and the Olivet Discourse on my blog. I’m also going to publish a series of posts arguing for ultra-universalism, the belief that all divine punishment for sin takes place in this life, and that everyone will be made sinless and deathless when they are resurrected at Jesus’ return – while I don’t hold dogmatically to this view, I think it holds weight against other universalist views, and it doesn't get enough attention.

Revelation commentary:

Olivet Discourse commentary: